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25 20 15 10 5 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Ethylene Propylene Benzene Butadiene Figure 4. Historical production rates of major petrochemicals in the U.S. (Chemical and Engineering News, 1997) Average plant capacity for the U.S. is about 600,000 tonnes ethylene per year (O&GJ, 1998). A typical size for new U.S. plants is somewhat higher: 800-900,000 tonnes per year. Ethane-based plants generally have a higher capacity than liquid (naphtha/gas oil) crackers. Liquid crackers require a higher throughput of feedstock per unit of ethylene produced and get more easily contaminated. Larger plants are, generally, more efficient (Solomon, 1995). Age of technology Estimates of the average age and age distribution of ethylene production facilities vary. For example, according to Exxon Chemical Company Basic Chemicals Americas, as of 1998 75% of U.S. ethylene capacity is no older than 10 years (Chemical Market Reporter, 1998b). However, Los Alamos National Laboratory reports that 75% of current plants in the U.S. olefins industry are older than 20 years (LANL, 1996). Often plant sites and the basic design of a plant may be much older (dating back to 1962, see also Appendix A). It is very difficult to determine which part of the installations has been replaced since the time of construction. As might be expected newer plants are, generally, more efficient than older ones. The difference between plants built in the early seventies and the early nineties is on average 40% (worldwide) (Solomon, 1995). Economics Manufacturing plants fed with ethane and propane can be constructed at much lower investment costs than naphtha crackers (Chemical Market Reporter, 1998b). For a 450,000 tonnes/year plant, investment costs vary from $430/tonne ethylene for ethane crackers, $645/tonne ethylene for naphtha crackers to $755/tonne ethylene for gas oil crackers (1993-$) (Gielen et al., 1996)3. For larger plants, investment costs (per tonne of ethylene) will be lower. Production costs vary from 3 These estimates are based on Dutch production plants. However, according to (Gielen et al., 1996) investment costs are similar for U.S. Gulf Coast plants. 10 1 Production (Mtonnes)PDF Image | Energy use and energy intensity
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