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NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28880-x ARTICLE AB C Charge, 50% SOC D Discharge, 50% SOC Cl2 is a reactive chemical commodity used in paper, plastic, dye, textile, medicine, antiseptics, insecticide, solvent, and paint industries. Administration and engineering controls for storage and transport are available to confine the incident rate to 0.019% of total chlorine shipments between 2007 and 201762. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States has set a permissible exposure limit at a time-weighted average of 0.1 ppm (0.68 mg/m3) for bromine, 0.05 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide dust, 0.1 ppm (0.4 mg/m3) for quinone, and 1.0 ppm (3 mg/m3) for chlorine63. Thus, there is no apparent increase in chemical exposure risk when changing to chlorine redox reaction. However, protections and cautions are still crucial. The CFB proposed here is a closed system in which the leakage of Cl2 gas is minimized by the fluoropolymer gasket (see Supplementary Note 2 for evaluation of chlorine permeation). Strategies from the chloro-alkali industry can be applied to reduce the risk of expo- sure upon scaling up, such as external seal pipe, shutoff system, neutralization reagents (scrubber)64, and sensing systems65. In summary, the CFB proposed has demonstrated several unique advantages over current flow battery systems, including higher energy density, higher round-trip energy efficiency, and significantly lower prices. The membrane-free design enables both anionic and cationic charge carriers for a RFB, thus Cell configuration: Fig. 3 Simulation of the CFB. A Steady-state potentials of CFB charged at 50% SOC with different Qaq and Qorg = 0.002 mL/s, inset shows the whole current density range demonstrating steady charge potential. B Steady-state potentials of CFB discharged at 50% SOC with different Qorg and Qaq = 0.02 mL/s, inset shows the whole current density range demonstrating steady discharge potential. C Distribution of Cl− and Cl2 in the CFB charged at 50% SOC and 50 mA/cm2 with Qaq = 0.02 mL/s and Qorg = 0.002 mL/s. D Distribution of Cl− and Cl2 in the CFB discharged at 50% SOC and 50 mA/ cm2 with Qaq = 0.02 mL/s and Qorg = 0.002 mL/s. The position of Cl2-CCl4, NaCl/H2O, porous RuO2-TiO2@C positive electrode and NaTi2(PO4)3 negative electrode are labeled in the legend. NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2022)13:1281 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28880-x | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 5PDF Image | High-energy and low-cost membrane-free CFB
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