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NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28880-x ARTICLE 1 L/min, followed by heat-treatment at 900 °C for 2 hours without toluene carrying gas to increase its electronic conductivity. The temperature increasing rate is 5.0 °C/min. Electrode preparation and electrochemical measurements. The working elec- trode was fabricated by pressing a mixture of the active materials (porous carbon or carbon-coated NaTi2(PO4)3), carbon black, and PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) binder at the weight ratio of 7:2:1 onto a titanium grid with a pressure of 10 MPa. The cyclic voltammograms (CV) were obtained using a three-electrode cell with an active carbon counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode (0.197 V versus NHE). In the concentric cell, the inner diameter of the tube containing CCl4 and the RuO2-TiO2@C electrode is 2.0 mm, the thickness of the porous carbon elec- trode is 1.0 mm, the distance between the counter and working electrodes is 3.0 mm, and the thickness of the counter electrode is 3.0 mm. The height of the cell is 2.0 cm, and the volume capacity of the cell is around 2.0 mL. The total volume of the CCl4 reservoir is 6.0 mL, and the total volume of the NaCl/H2O reservoir is 2.0 mL. The CV measurements were carried out on a CHI660B electrochemical workstation. The galvanostatic charge and discharge profiles were obtained with an Arbin battery test station. Material characterizations. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were taken with Hitachi SU-70 analytical SEM (Japan). Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) data were collected on a Bruker D8 X-ray diffractometer using Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å). Raman spectroscopy was performed on a Horiba Jobin Yvon Labram Aramis using a 532 nm diode-pumped solid-state laser, attenuated to give ~900 μW power at the sample surface. Viscosity Measurements were carried out using a CANNON-FENSKE viscometer. Energy density calculations. The energy density of CFB was calculated based on the 600 mAh cell used in this study with Eq. (1). The average operating potential is 1.8 V at 10 mA/cm2, the volume of CCl4 is 6.0 mL, the volume of NaCl/H2O is 2.0 mL and the volume of Na(Ti2(PO4)3) is 0.592 mL (weight = 5.0 g, density = 2.96 g/mL, volume = 2.96 g/mL ÷ 5.0 g = 0.592 mL). The total volume of active materials is 8.592 mL. Based on these configurations, the cell-level energy density (based on active materials) is 125.7 Wh/L. 12. Lee, W., Park, G. & Kwon, Y. Alkaline aqueous organic redox flow batteries of high energy and power densities using mixed naphthoquinone derivatives. Chem. Eng. Sci. 386, 123985 (2020). 13. Goulet, M.-A. et al. 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Arora, P. & Zhang, Z. Battery separators. Chem. Rev. 104, 4419–4462 (2004). 45. Nguyen, T. & Savinell, R. F. Flow batteries. Electrochem. Soc. Interface 19, Energy density 1⁄4 Cell capacity ́ average potential Total volume of active materials Data availability ð1Þ The data that support the findings within this paper are available within the article and Supplementary Information. Additional data are available from the corresponding authors upon request. Source data are provided with this paper. Received: 14 January 2021; Accepted: 8 February 2022; References 1. Yang, Z. et al. Electrochemical energy storage for green grid. Chem. Rev. 111, 3577–3613 (2011). 2. Ansari, M. I. H., Qurashi, A. & Nazeeruddin, M. K. Frontiers, opportunities, and challenges in perovskite solar cells: a critical review. J. Photochem. Photobiol. C. 35, 1–24 (2018). 3. Lu, X., McElroy, M. B. & Kiviluoma, J. Global potential for wind-generated electricity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 106, 10933–10938 (2009). 4. 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