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batteries showed energy efficiencies between 67.5 and 73.2%, depending on ambient temperature, permitting maximum fuel savings of 60% when the electrical demand was low (1 kW), decreasing to 10% with higher demands (5 kW). Primus Power has tested a 72 kW h grid levelling system in California, noting that short charge/discharge operation fomented dendritic deposits, although this could be managed with weekly 15-30 min. stripping cycles [112]. Using twelve 10 kW h modules, an energy storage system was built by Raytheon/KTech (USA) for Sandia National Laboratories [113]. The overall efficiency of the system was 48.1%. The power per frequency curve of the energy system showed a near linear behaviour with some hysteresis due to a delayed response. The evaluated power and frequency ranges were –18 to 12 kW and 59.54 to 60.48 Hz, respectively. Figure 8 shows an example of a commercial 10 kW h Zn-Br2 system (Redflow Ltd.), comprising a stack of bipolar cells, reservoirs to accommodate the electrolytes (100 dm3), pumps and a control unit [114]. The manifolds are next to the cell stack and sealed to the capillary tubes of the cell stack frames. The device has a nominal voltage of 48 V, a nominal power of 3 kW, an energy efficiency of 80% and its guaranteed for 10 years or 36,500 kW h of delivered energy. The same company offers a larger, 600 kW h capacity Zn-Br2 RFB for utility applications as well as a 10 kW h system intended for home use. 2.4 Prospects for zinc-bromine redox flow batteries The Zn-Br2 RFB remains a viable alternative for electrical energy storage in the market for 10 kW to 10 MW in terms of cost, rapid response to electricity demands, reliability and durability. Thanks to its high reversibility, specific energy, cell voltage and energy efficiency the system continues to be popular in research institutions and the industry, especially in the 18PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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