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current density of 510 mA cm–2. Smedley et al. [180] (Figure 13) constructed a regenerative Zn-air battery with a zinc electrolyser included within the system. A 18 kW 12 cell system was demonstrated to provide 1.1 kW net power for 24 hours, requiring 48 h for regeneration. Recently, mechanically rechargeable Zn–air batteries have been studied via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy by Mele et al.[225]. The negative electrode is fed by gravity in the form of particles of 0.4 mm of diameter. In a 6 mol dm–3 KOH solution, the cell affords a power of 36 mW cm–2 at a current density of 56 mA cm–2. Efficiency loses are due to the progressive packing of the Zn particles and their passivation by a ZnO film. EOS Energy Storage [226] and Amendola et al. [227] have been developing an undivided Zn- air battery system with flowing near-neutral pH chloride electrolyte containing additives and buffers to aid in solubility and plating of zinc. The positive electrode contains either a Mn or Co-based electrocatalyst although no specific details are given. The reported product was a 1 MW/ 4 MW h DC battery at $160 to 200 kW h with a system life of 5000 cycles at 75% cycle efficiency. As part of the LIFE ZAESS project, Técnicas Reunidas, S.A. has developed a the largest pilot alkaline Zn-air RFB to date [228] to demonstrate integration of the technology with renewable energy at a grid-scale. The device comprises 20 cells arranged into 3 stacks and has a nominal energy capacity of 4 kW h and a nominal power of 1 kW. In order to avoid the low stability of bifunctional electrodes, the system has been designed with two different, integrated positive electrodes, a nickel mesh for O2 evolution (charging) and a GDE for oxygen reduction (discharging). The negative electrodes are fed by a 1,000 dm3 tank of zincate electrolyte. The system has a voltage of 24 V and maximum current of 90 A, operating at current densities 38PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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