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that moderately high temperatures were beneficial for its performance. For example, at a current density of 80 mA cm–2, the overall energy efficiency increased from 53.0% at 0 oC to 70.1% at 40 oC. More recently, Yao et al. [261] have studied the electrode potential of this battery, while Wang [262] proposed an alternative Zn-Ni flow cell where the cathode is a Ni(OH)2 electrode coated with a O2 reduction catalyst. Developments at City University of New York were reported in 2011 [178]. This collaboration described the operation of a 3.7 A h cell over 1,500 cycles, during which coulombic and energy efficiencies over of 90% and 80%, respectively were achieved. This long operational life time was enabled by carrying out a reconditioning step every 15 cycles. This technology was up-scaled into a 100 W h prismatic cell demonstrated over 200 cycles [57] then later with a 25 kW h battery [237]. As shown in Figure 15, this device comprised thirty 555 A h/833 W h cells and operated successfully over 3,300 cycles yielding an average energy efficiency >80%. However, the positive electrode passivated at overpotentials of 100 mV above open- circuit potential and the interelectrode gap was obstructed by zinc particulate formation, causing cathode degradation. The absence of an external electrolyte tank eliminated the risk of leakage and reduced pumping energy losses associated with pressure drops in connecting pipework. This helps to facilitate a consistent electrolyte flow regime within the cell. Turney et al. [237] reported that 4% of the cell energy was consumed to power the built-in pump, which they considered a small proportion. In addition to the practical work discussed above, Lin et al. [263] and Li et al. [264] have developed models of the Zn-Ni RFB system with a view to optimising efficiency. While the first model focuses purely on the cell itself, the second includes both the cell and the effect of electrolyte flow rate and energy consumed by the pump. They conclude that to optimise 48PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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