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unfavorable.18, 19, 23 While some progress has been made on the development of selective catalysts for OER from seawater, reaching industrially relevant current densities (> 300 mA/cm2) has been a major challenge.18, 19 Even though carbonate and borate ions are present in seawater, their average concentration is too low to sustain high current densities. Majority of reports at industrially relevant current densities use seawater with a borate buffer or additives such as KOH.18, 19 Furthermore, because seawater is essentially a non-buffered electrolyte, which causes a change in pH near the electrode surface during electrolysis (as high as 5-9 pH units), leading to salt precipitation as well as catalyst and electrode degradation.24 Other challenges include the presence of other ions, bacteria, microbes, as well as small particulates, which limit the long-term stability of catalysts and membranes.23 Despite the resources and efforts that have gone into developing this technology, direct seawater splitting remains in its infancy and distant from commercialization. Desalination Technologies Desalination - particularly via seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) has seen tremendous technology advancements. Over the years, with improvement of membrane technology, more efficient energy recovery devices, and process optimization of reverse osmosis (RO) systems, have resulted in lowering the energy requirements, capital (CAPEX) and operating costs (OPEX) associated with the technology. In the last few decades, the energy requirement of SWRO desalination plants has decreased from ~9-10 kWh/m3 to < 3 kWh/m3 currently.25, 26 This has led to a decrease in levelized cost of SWRO desalinated water from > 2.2 $/m3 to < 0.6 $/m3 27 and resulted in a 6.5-fold increase in global desalination capacity (Figure 2). As of 2020, total production capacity reached > 100 million m3/day, ~70% of which is based on RO. The increase in production capacity is expected to follow the same trend in the next decades, as per planned and under construction plants.27-32 This raises the questions: what is the future promise of direct seawater splitting as compared to SWRO coupled with commercial water electrolysis for widespread implementation ? Further, with an urgent need to decarbonize our energy systems, should we consider realigning research priorities to disrupt the current fossil-fuel based carbon economy? 4PDF Image | Seawater Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production
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