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Energies 2022, 15, 7397 3 of 20 Power Source Operating Principle Electrostatic capacitor Supercapacitor Superconducting magnet Gravity storage Hydroelectric storage Pneumatic accumulator Flywheel Lead acid battery Nickel-cadmium battery Nickel-metal hydride battery Sodium sulfur battery Nickel salt battery Li-ion battery Fuel cell with proton exchange membrane Methanol fuel cell Fuel cell based on molten carbonate Solid oxide fuel cell Vanadium flow battery Iron-chromium flow battery Polysulfide-bromine flow battery Iron-titanium redox flow battery Organic flow redox battery Gravimetric Energy Density, W h kg−1 0.01–0.1 1–75 0.5–30 0.1–0.5 0.2–0.5 3–60 10–30 33–42 50–75 60–70 150–240 100–125 75–265 300–1000 140–960 100–610 410–1500 10–50 5–25 10–45 10–50 10–40 Specific Power Density, W kg−1 1·104–1·106 1·103 –1.4·103 5·102–1·106 0.5–1.5 0.5–5 2–24 400–1500 80–300 150–500 200–1500 150–250 150–200 80–250 4–675 2–20 8–36 10–80 30–170 22–116 5–28 14–74 1–100 Source [17] [17,18] [19,20] [21,22] [19,23] [24,25] [19,26,27] [19,25,28] [19,24,25,28] [24,25,28] [19,24,25] [19,24,25,28] [19,25,28–30] [19,24,25,31] [25,32] [25,33] [25,33] [19,25,34] [34] [8,35–37] [38] [39] Table 1. Specific energy and power densities for the main electrical energy accumulation and storage technologies. The diagram clearly demonstrates three functional groups for the main electrical energy accumulation and storage technologies: Power control devices are designed to ensure a smooth power supply and maintain the electric power quality, requiring prominent specific and peak power (up to 1 MW) and rapid response (from several milliseconds to one second) to the changes in power grid operation regime at relatively weak energy capacity requirements for a complete discharge of the system up to several minutes. Bridging power devices are used to maintain the voltage in the network while switch- ing power-generating devices. They provide total power in the range from 1 kW to 10 MW (specific power from 10 W kg−1) and energy capacity enough to perform the complete discharge in about 1 h (specific energy consumption in the range of 10 W h kg−1 and above) with the time order of seconds to enter the operating mode under load. Energy management devices are used to replace the main power generators for long- term energy storage with a power limit from 1 kW to tens and hundreds of MW, designed for complete discharge over a period of several hours to days, with relatively weak require- ments for peak and specific power and the time order of one hour to enter the operating mode under load. Based on Figure 1 one can conclude that (1) capacitors, supercapacitors and super- conducting magnets, as well as flywheels and gyroscopes, are best suited as devices for ensuring the quality of electricity in the network and smooth power supply to electrical consumers; (2) power sources operating on the principle of galvanic cells suit well for main- taining voltage in the power grid when switching between different power supply systems; (3) The requirements for devices for stationary energy storage are met by gravity energy storage devices, hydroelectric storage, and devices that store energy in the compressed air form. The design of redox flow batteries implementing independent scaling of energy capacity and power together with an exemplary combination of efficiency and cost allows them to use both in bridging power and energy management devices. For stationary energy storage applications, in addition to the requirements for specific energy capacity and power, the scalability of the technology as well as its durabilityPDF Image | Halogen Hybrid Flow Batteries
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