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Energies 2022, 15, 7397 4 of 20 Power Source Operating Principle Gravity storage Hydroelectric storage Pneumatic storage Flywheel Lead-acid battery Nickel-cadmium battery Nickel-metal hydride battery Sodium-sulfur battery Nickel-salt battery Lithium-ion battery Fuel cell with proton exchange membrane Molten carbonate fuel cell Solid oxide fuel cell Vanadium flow battery Iron-chromium flow battery Polysulfide-bromine flow battery Average System Efficiency, % 70–80 70–87 70–89 70–90 80–90 60–80 65–90 75–90 75–90 75–92 20–85 70–80 60–85 65–85 70–80 70–80 Total Energy Capacity 1, MW h 0.1–3 100–3000 50–300 1–20 1·10−5 –10 1·10−5 –30 1·10−5 –5 1·10−5–5 1·10−5 –5 1·10−5 –10 1·10−5 –2 1–100 1·10−5 –1 1·10−5 –200 1·10−5 –100 1·10−5 –12 Characteristic Energy Storage Times, Sec–Months 1–24 h and more 1–24 h and more 1–24 h and more Less than 15 min sec–days sec–hours sec–hours sec–up to 10 h sec–hours sec–days sec–months min–months min–days sec–months sec–months sec–months Average Service Life, Years (Number of Cycles) 50 30–60 20–40 15–20 5–10 (200–1000) 10–15 (500–2500) 10–15 (1000–1800) 5–15 (2500–5000) 5–15 (2500–4500) 5–15 (2000–5000) 1–3 5–10 2–5 10–20 (10,000) 10–20 5–15 Source [22] [40–42] [19,42–44] [19,42,45] [42,46,47] [42,48] [49,50] [51–55] [56–58] [19,59–61] [62–64] [65–68] [68–72] [73,74] [34,75–77] [8,78–81] plays a significant role. According to Table 1 majority of modern chemical power sources (secondary power sources operating on the principle of galvanic cells, fuel cells and flow batteries) satisfy the minimum requirements for energy storage devices in terms of specific energy capacity and power. Nevertheless, the scaling requirements for power systems and their reliability during operation impose significant additional restrictions on the choice of technology. Table 2 and Figure 2 present the results of the existing technologies comparison in terms of technological parameters–average efficiency, total energy capacity for real system prototypes, characteristic energy storage time intervals, and average service life. Technologies without existing commercial prototypes were not included for comparison. Table 2. Comparison of scalability, reliability and efficiency of the main electrical energy accumulation and storage technologies. 1 For prototype systems put into operation. The cost of power and energy indicators play an important role in the accumulation and storage technologies development. In general cases, the cost of power measured in currency units ($ US) per kW−1 means the price for generating one kW of energy considering the price contribution of fabricating all consisting components and assembly of the corresponding energy storage devices without considering expenditures on its maintenance. The cost of energy, measured in currency units per kW−1 h−1 represents a similar value, but for storing one kW h. These indicators strongly depend on the total energy capacity of the electric storage device: the better technology lends itself to scaling, the smaller will be difference in price per kW or kW h for an electric storage device with a total energy capacity and power on the kW or MW scale. Therefore, in Table 3 cost indicators are given as intervals, where a larger cost corresponds to a larger scale [82–87].PDF Image | Halogen Hybrid Flow Batteries
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