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Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22 Energies 2022, 15, 7397 5 of 20 1 For prototype systems put into operation. Figure 2. Characteristic scales in terms of storage time and volume of stored energy for the main Figure 2. Characteristic scales in terms of storage time and volume of stored energy for the main eeleleccttrricicaalleenneerrggyyaacccumullaattiionaandssttorraageettecchnollogiiess.. This preliminary analysis shows several promising energy storage technologies fa- The cost of power and energy indicators play an important role in the accumulation vorable for distributed energy applications, all of them fiercely ousting the traditional and storage technologies development. In general cases, the cost of power measured in energy sources in terms of co−s1t, processability, environmental friendliness and efficiency. currency units ($ US) per kW means the price for generating one kW of energy consid- Based on this data applicability limits can be determined for each of the currently existing ering the price contribution of fabricating all consisting components and assembly of the energy storage systems. Thus, in the range from hundreds of kW to hundreds of MW, flow corresponding energy storage devices without considering expenditures on its mainte- batteries have several significant advantages over competing technologies: long service life, nance. The cost of energy, measured in currency units per kW−1 h−1 represents a similar stable cycling performance and the possibility of deep discharge without consequences, value, but for storing one kW h. These indicators strongly depend on the total energy structurally independent scaling of power density and energy capacity, the absence of capacity of the electric storage device: the better technology lends itself to scaling, the self-discharge and the chemical stability of the reagents. Therefore, they can serve both as smaller will be difference in price per kW or kW h for an electric storage device with a bridging power and energy management devices. total energy capacity and power on the kW or MW scale. Therefore, in Table 3 cost indi- Today a necessary condition for increasing the commercial attractiveness of redox flow cators are given as intervals, where a larger cost corresponds to a larger scale [82–87]. batteries is the creation of chemical systems with much more efficient energy capacity while maintaining low cost and basic technological characteristics inherent in such systems. One Table 3. Comparison of the cost of power and energy for perspective electrical energy accumulation of the perspective solutions to this problem can be the application of the hybrid principle and storage technologies. of power sources design, which will be discussed in the following parts. Power Source Operating Principle Lead acid Nickel-cadmium Main Features Low cost High pulse power perfor- mance Cost of Power, $ kW−1 3.5–12 3–30 Cost of Energy, $ kW−1 h−1 75–150 100–350 Source [83,85] [82,85,87] Solid batteries TypePDF Image | Halogen Hybrid Flow Batteries
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