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Energies 2022, 15, 7397 6 of 20 Table 3. Comparison of the cost of power and energy for perspective electrical energy accumulation and storage technologies. Power Source Operating Principle Lead acid Nickel-cadmium Li-ion With proton exchange membrane Melt-carbonate Solid oxide Vanadium Iron-chromium Main Features Low cost High pulse power performance Fast and safe charging unprecedented manufacturability fast startup, flexibility in input fuel, compact high fuel utilization and power generation efficiency combined heat and power efficiency, long-term stability no limit on energy capacity, no penalty for mixing electrolytes abundance of Fe and Cr resources, low energy storage cost Cost of Power, $ kW−1 3.5–12 3–30 3.5–80 34–62 40–60 25–34 3.5–30 3.1–28 Cost of Energy, $ kW−1 h−1 75–150 100–350 180–950 600–1500 500–650 650–850 75–100 50–100 Source [83,85] [82,85,87] [84,85] [82,85,87] [85–87] [82,85,86] [82,84,85] [82,84,85] 3. Halogen Hybrid Flow Batteries Perspective Concepts Analysis 3.1. Hybrid Principle Basis Based on the analysis carried out in Section 2, one can conclude that the indicated weak spot in the design of the electrochemical system can be replaced by another concept. This hybrid device may lose performance in some way, but this change can push a device from completely non-functional to viable in terms of functionality. So, in the case of lithium batteries, the lithium-metal electrode was sacrificed and replaced by lithium-intercalated graphite, which led to a 30% decrease in theoretical energy density, nevertheless making it possible to create a battery with a long-life cycle [88]. In general, a natural consequence of this approach is the free combination of design and chemistry for the cathode and anode half-cells of the electrochemical system in a way to balance the system as much as possible in terms of performance. When doing this optimization, there is no need to stay within the same design or operation principle for the power source: the ability to combine different technologies is the key to obtaining new energy storage devices that simultaneously combine the advantages of capacitors, electrochemical or fuel cells, flow batteries and other technologies. At present, this approach to the development of new energy sources is used every- where. Thus, an increase in the energy capacity of a conventional double-layer capacitor with the reversible redox electrochemical processes on the electrode near-surface layer leads to a new type of electrochemical capacitor–supercapacitor [89–94]. The combination of various chemistries of galvanic cells has led to the appearance of lithium-sulfur batter- ies with outstanding performance in terms of specific energy capacity—a value of more than 500 W h has been experimentally achieved [95–101]. Even higher energy intensity (comparable to the energy intensity of gasoline fuel) is demonstrated by a hybrid of a fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery, a lithium-air battery, where electric current is gener- ated due to oxidation of lithium at the anode and oxygen reduction from the air at the cathode [102–110]. Despite a number of difficulties associated with the use of metal anodes, the choice of catalysts and electrolytes, metal-air electrochemical sources are the prominent result of combining the idea of electrolyte circulating through the system and the design of a galvanic cell, for example, for transport applications [111–120]. The principle of combining various electrochemical approaches can also play a decisive role in solving the problems of traditional fuel cells, where you can sacrifice air oxygen by Redox flow batteries Fuel cells Solidbatteries TypePDF Image | Halogen Hybrid Flow Batteries
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