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their technical, economic and environmental features to give a good indication of their relevance to different applications. In general, the generation of energy from renewable sources is carried out on a much smaller scale than conventional power plants, commonly in the range of kilowatts to megawatts, with various levels of applications ranging from small off-grid communities to grid-scale storage [18]. These requirements are suitably met by redox flow batteries (RFBs), first developed by NASA in the 1970s [19] as an electrical-energy storage technology. RFBs have proven to be able to support the transmission and distribution of renewable energy efficiently within the grid due to their high cycling efficiency, reasonable nominal duration, reliable long lifespan and flexibility in terms of geographical location [20]. In addition to renewable energy applications, RFBs are also suited to frequency response and UPS services, due to their fast response time, in the order of seconds [7, 17]. Other advantages of RFBs, which include their ability to operate at ambient temperature and pressure, absence of harmful emissions, safety in comparison to lithium-ion batteries and greater efficiency in comparison to electrolysis cells, make them ideal medium to large-scale energy storage solutions [21]. 1.2 Zinc-based redox flow batteries Recently, the Zn(II)/Zn redox couple has received considerable interest as the negative electrode reaction in several redox flow batteries (RFBs) for renewable energy storage. Some of the advantages of using this redox couple include: a negative standard electrode, the high solubility of Zn(II) ions, fast kinetics as well as the low cost, abundance and recyclability of zinc compounds. Depending on the chemistry of the RFB, the electrodeposition and redissolution reaction can take place either in acid or in alkaline media [22], respectively: 5PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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