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metal deposition and metal dissolution. Such effects were observed in a Zn-Br2 battery using 45 and 100 ppi reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) electrodes [104]. In the 10 ́ 10 ́ 0.1 cm electrodes, the Zn deposited during charge produced non-uniform deposits, concentrating in the electrode planes up to 0.2 mm deep into the negative electrode; increased electrolyte flow rate had a very small effect. Corrugated plates and honeycomb electrodes are also a possibility but dendritic growths are difficult to avoid due to heterogeneous potential distribution and edge effects at the electrodes. Electrode geometries tailored by potential/current distribution modelling and computational flow dynamics (CFD) are now possible. 2.2 The bromine positive electrode The bromine/tribromide electrode reaction takes place in the positive side of the carbon-based composite bipolar electrodes. Wang et al. [105] have studied the activity of acetylene black, expanded graphite, carbon nanotubes and carbon black commercial carbon filling materials towards the Br2/Br− redox couple by several techniques. Electrodes having a high surface area, surface porosity and good conductivity result in high reaction rates; carbon black has shown a particularly high electrochemical activity. Munaiah et al. [106, 107] have shown that single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) appear to have a higher electrocatalytic activity for the Br2/Br− reaction when incorporated into a carbon felt electrode. The same authors have considered exfoliated graphene-based electrodes [108]. The stability of expensive nanomaterials on electrode surfaces is likely to be insufficient during long-term operation and it is difficult to improve on the practicality and economy of classical activated (e.g., coconut shell) carbon. The limited performance of planar electrodes for the positive electrode reaction should also be considered. In the 80s, Energy Research Corporation used carbon felt positive electrodes 15PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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