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bonded to the carbon bipolar plates [64]. With these electrodes, coulombic and voltage efficiencies of 89% and 84% were achieved in unit cells, although the pressure difference between the positive and negative compartments was problematic in the stacks, while a faster reaction rate at the positive electrode might result in cell imbalance. In other words, the application of 3-D porous electrodes for the bromine reaction is subject to the efficiency of the negative Zn deposition/dissolution electrode reaction. A divided Zn-Br2 battery with a semi-solid positive electrode comprised of a slurry of carbon black and zinc bromate in a carbon felt has been used to decrease the emissions of bromine [109]. At 20 mA cm2, the cell yielded coulombic and energy efficiencies of 92% and 82%, respectively. Nevertheless, such design is not suitable for utility-scale applications in view of active material limitations. Precious metal catalysts can be advantageous for the bromine electrode reaction, e.g. [110], although cost and serious safety concerns in an environment potentially containing halide gas and corrosive, acidic bromine solutions have discouraged their use. 2.3 Cell performance Zn-Br2 RFBs are reliable and reversible, having a cell potential of ca. 1.82 V, a specific energy of 440 W h kg–1 and a typical energy efficiency between 65% and 90%. Batteries containing an organic liquid phase, such as a quaternary ammonium salts, to increase the efficiency of bipolar cells stacks are able to deliver between 2 kW and 10 kW h at room temperature. All the electroactive materials are low cost and abundant but the system presents the typical current leakage and pressure drop problems of bipolar, parallel plate reactors that result in energy loss. Careful manifold and electrode design is required to distribute the electrolyte and reduce leakage currents. 16PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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