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displayed a superior charge efficiency of >95 % during multiple cycles. The stability of six different carbon/polymer composites was later studied by the same researchers [125]. The effect of temperature over 298 – 333 K and mass transport in rotating disc experiments showed that higher temperatures favoured the kinetics of Zn deposition and dissolution, while increasing rotation rates resulted in current density for such reactions, although this effect was due in part to the removal of H2 bubbles. PVDF and PVE showed good cycling stability over 180 simulated charge/discharge cycles. It has also been demonstrated that the incorporation of In(III) into graphite electrodes can inhibit H2 evolution at the bare material during charge [124]. This strategy increased the current efficiency of a Zn-Ce cell from 71% to 83% and reduced the overpotential associated to the ageing of the material after multiple cycles. As in other Zn-based RFBs, the deposition of uniform thick zinc layer with a compact microstructure onto the current collector is necessary during the charge process. The morphology of such deposits is influenced by the material/form of the current collector, charge regime, electrolyte composition and hydrodynamics [129]. The morphology of Zn deposits has been related to the operational current density of the battery via Hull cell experiments using an improved electrolyte composition with 2.5 mol dm–3 Zn(CH3SO3)2 in 1.5 mol dm–3 CH3SO3H [130]. As shown in Figure 10, current densities under 15 mA cm–2 failed to cover the carbon composite surface in these experiments. Between 15 mA cm–2 and 30 mA cm–2 the electrodeposited Zn is smooth overall. A desirable operation approaching current densities of 80 mA cm–2 could be difficult to implement due to the formation of rougher and deposits at the electrode. H2 evolution will be favoured during the charge process at higher current densities, not to mention the self-discharge mechanism due to corrosion of zinc. 22PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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