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of zinc over a large number of cycles. For example, Müller et al. reported cycling a bipolar seven cell stack (100 cm2) using a bifunctional perovskite catalyst with a peak power output of 90 W although no performance stability vs. time data was reported. In order to cope with the challenges of bifunctional catalysts for positive electrodes, cell designs that omit the need for them have been developed. A flow cell whereby the positive electrode was constructed of the O2 evolution and reduction catalyst layers one on top the other on Ni foam and pressed together at 12 MPa [61]. The cell was cycled in KOH/ LiOH/ ZnO electrolyte for 150 cycles at 60 °C with a charge efficiency of >96% and energy efficiency of ca. 72%. Ma et al. attempted to physically combine catalysts for O2 evolution and reduction [221] a-MnO2 and LaNiO3 respectively with PTFE and carbon nanotubes into a paste, pressed onto Ni foam to fabricate a positive electrode for a three-cell stack. Although the stack was cycled in 0.4 mol dm–3 ZnO + 6 mol dm–3 KOH for 100 cycles at 15 mA cm–2 during charge and at 25 mA cm–2 during discharge with a final energy efficiency of ca. 72%, such physical catalyst mixing cannot be recommended as the oxygen reduction catalyst degrades at the charging potentials. Mechanical regeneration of zinc particles separately from the battery is another alternative to a bifunctional positive electrode. Powerzinc Electric Inc. [222] and Electric Fuel Ltd in Israel [54] have used this type of design for electric vehicles. The zinc anodes are contained in replaceable cassettes, which are recharged by an external facility. An example of such a Zn- air battery was introduced by Cooper [223]. Stacks of up to 12 cells with positive electrodes of active areas between 80 and 1000 cm2 were tested. A refuel-able Zn-air stack [224], where pellet zinc electrodes and an inexpensive a-MnO2 catalysed positive electrode in KOH electrolyte was tested in 2 and 5 cell stacks, delivering a power density of 435 mW cm–2 at a 37PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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