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Furthermore, the Zn-Ni system is environmentally friendly due to the use of low-toxicity zinc and nickel active materials. Spanos et al. [239] have assessed the environmental impact of the Zn-Ni RFB compared with static electrolyte Zn-Mn and lead acid systems by conducting life cycle analysis studies. The battery used for this study utilised a Cu negative electrode substrate sintered Ni positive electrode and a NaOH electrolyte. Of the three systems investigated, the Zn-Ni battery was found to have the lowest environmental impact, with an energy demand of 1.7-2.3 MJ W–1 h–1 compared with 2.2-2.8 MJ W–1 h–1 for lead acid batteries and 10.6-14.0 MJ W–1 h–1 for Zn-Mn batteries. The global warming impact of the Zn-Ni RFB was also considered to be the lowest, at 0.11-0.14 kg CO2 equivalent per W h. There are, however, challenges associated with the Zn-Ni system. As with other zinc negative batteries, the morphology of the zinc deposition at the negative electrode can be problematic. Shape changes can occur due to inconsistent distribution of zinc deposition over the surface area of the electrode, while H2 and O2 gas can evolve during charging at the zinc and nickel electrodes, respectively. In addition, the capacity of the Zn-Ni cell is limited by the amount of active material at the surface of the positive nickel electrode. Therefore, a larger surface area of nickel electrode leads to a higher cell charge capacity. 5.1 The zinc negative electrode The negative electrode in the alkaline Zn-Ni RFB is analogous to that in the Zn-air system. As described in section 4.1, this electrode can suffer from H2 evolution, dendritic growths and H2 evolution. Bass et al. [240] have summarized a number of strategies to overcome these problems, such as alternative separators and cell design, electrolyte and electrode additives as well as the implementation of pulse charging and electrode vibration. 42PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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