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SWRO to CO2 emissions is negligibly small when compared to PEM water electrolysis, irrespective of the energy source (Inset of Figure 6(a)). We also calculated CO2 emissions for the more practical scenario where the SWRO-PEM plant gets its required power from the electricity grid (Figure 3). Figure 6 (b) shows the CO2 emissions from a coupled SWRO-PEM process based on average emission intensity from electricity generation in different jurisdictions.45 The analysis indicates the SWRO-PEM process for large scale H2 production is environmentally compelling only in countries with a carbon intensity of electricity < 0.18 kg CO2e/kWh. Today, such low carbon footprint from electricity generation is only possible in countries having significant fraction of their electrical energy from renewables, such as Canada, Sweden, and Iceland.46 In countries like China and the United states which are currently the biggest CO2 emitters in the world, such low carbon intensity would be an ambitious target to achieve in the next couple of decades unless there is a major shift in energy policies and production methods. For truly green H2 production, one could consider the example of Iceland where 100% renewable electricity on grid emits only ~0.48 kg-CO2e/kg H2.47 Conclusions and Outlook In summary, our analysis shows there are limited economic and environmental incentives for pursuing research and development on today’s nascent direct seawater splitting technology as opposed to simply coupling industrially mature SWRO with water electrolysis routes for sustainable H2 production in the foreseeable future. With fast growing multiple challenges in energy, water, environment, food, and health affecting modern society, we will likely be better off prioritizing R&D investment in technologies that have the greatest chance for widespread deployment in near future, including coupled SWRO and PEM systems. This seems to us a more practical and immediately deployable route than large-scale investments in developing catalysts and systems for direct electrolysis of seawater with all its attendant uncertainties. Despite fast development with great promise for future, PEM electrolysis routes to hydrogen production remains expensive for widespread roll out. Therefore, further investment in R&D efforts from academia and industry for developing low cost and energy efficiency electrocatalysts is vital for future market growth. With 1.2 billion people around the globe living in areas of physical water scarcity, there are opportunities to further develop energy efficient and economically compelling 12PDF Image | Seawater Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production
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