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The operating current density at planar electrodes has usually been 15 to 30 mA cm–2 [52], and appears to be limited to 40 mA cm–2 during charge, due to the onset of dendritic deposition [29]. It is understood that discharge has been possible at 80 mA cm–2, for short periods of time. In contrast, H2-Br2 systems are reported to be capable of discharge at 700 mA cm–2 at a cell potential of 0.8 V [111], notwithstanding their inherent health and safety concerns. Despite improvements in cell stack manufacture, choice of materials and device lifetime, the reported energy efficiency of the Zn-Br2 battery has shown only small improvements due to the limited area of the planar electrode for Zn deposition. More than three decades ago, Johnson Controls developed a 20 kW h load management system that operated at coulombic and energy efficiencies of 80% and 60%, respectively, at 28 mA cm–2 [65]. The 80 kW h Meindensha Electric system operated at 13 mA cm–2 giving an overall efficiency of 67% after 250 cycles [66]. A 30 cell stack with 872 cm2 bipolar electrodes (and carbon felt at the positive side) by Energy Research Corp. operating at a current density 34.4 mA cm–2 produced, voltage and energy efficiencies of 84.9%, 73.5%, 62.4%, respectively [64]. A better performance was later achieved by the SEA GmbH automotive battery, which could achieve maximum coulombic efficiencies 95% and voltage efficiencies of 86% [52]. In 1999, the Sandia National Laboratory cell design for utility-scale tested in a 1 kW h pilot device was claimed to yield an average coulombic efficiency of 77% with a voltage efficiency of 74% [67]. Recent testing has focused on the utility performance of the now more mature technology. In 2013 Sandia National laboratories reported the performance of remote, standalone 10 kW h Zn-Br2 batteries coupled to diesel generators for telecommunication applications [90]. The 17PDF Image | hybrid redox flow batteries with zinc negative electrodes
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